Growth And Evolution Of Steel Industry India Economics Essay

Growth And Evolution Of Steel Industry India Economics Essay Indians were familiar with iron and steel during the Vedic age more than 4,000 years ago. It is evident from the Iron Pillar at the outskirts of Delhi. But the seeds of modern steel industry were sown by Sir Jamshedji Tata in 1907 when Tata Iron Steel Company Ltd. (TISCO) was set up. The first steel ingots were rolled in TISCO in 1911. This was followed by the establishment of the Mysore Iron and Steel Works in 1936, later renamed as Visvesvaraya Iron Steel Works. Three years later in 1939, production of steel started in another private steel company, the Indian Iron Steel Company, now a subsidiary of the Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL). In India, a major part of steel is consumed in engineering applications, followed by automobiles and construction. The growth of steel, as is well known, is dependent upon the growth of the economy, industrial production and infrastructure sectors. Over the last few years the performance of the Indian steel industry has been adversely affected due to overcapacity, cheap imports, economic slowdown, declining global steel prices and also anti dumping duty imposed by USA on Indian exports. In the era of planned economy, iron and steel, a core and basic sector, received the full attention of the Government. It became a key sector for public investment for the first Five Year Plan itself. The year 1953 saw the first agreement being signed with the Germans to establish a 1 million tone plant at Rourkela in Orissa. Two more agreements for setting up steel plants, at Bhilai with the erstwhile USSRs assistance and another at Durgapur with the help of U.K. was signed in 1956. Successive capacity augmentations at Bhili, Durgapur and Rourkela saw their capacity increase to 2.5, 1.6 and 1.8 million tons per annum respectively by the end of the 60s. A new plant at Bokaro with a capacity of 2.5 million tones per annum went into production in 1973-74. The year 1978 witnessed a major restructuring of these steel-making public sector units giving birth to the public sector giant, SAIL, having a Navaratna status today, with an aggregate capacity of over 10 million tones. The first shore-based public sector integrated steel plant, viz. The Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Limited of 3 million tones per annum capacity went into production in August, 1992. During the first two decades of planned economic development, i.e. 1950-60 and 1960-70, the average annual growth rate of steel production exceeded 8 per cent. During 1970-80, this growth rate in steel production came down to 5.7 per cent per annum and gathered up marginally to 6.4 per cent per annum during 1980-90. Until the 1990s the iron and steel sector was by and large the exclusive preserve of only the public sector, the sole exception being TISCO. The new economic policy announced in 1991 was no doubt a significant milestone in the evolution of the Indian economy. The process of the economic reforms ushered in substantial liberalization of the policies and institutions governing trade, industry and finance. With this the complexion of Indian iron and steel industry has undergone a sea change. Iron and steel industry became one of the foremost sectors to be opened under the New Economic Policy. Substantial private investments flowed in with the consequent changes heralding a new beginning for the interplay of free market enterprise in this vital sector. Changes A glance at the pre-and post-1991 era reveals some interesting and significant structural changes. At the consumer or demand end, the market for steel has been transformed from a seller to a buyer market. Control and regulation have been replaced by competition. Administered prices have been replaced by supply-and demand-determined market prices. In the post-liberalization era, the structure of the steel industry is significantly and vastly different with the advent of major steel producers in the private sector which have come up with the world class technologies and capacities. There has been a clear shift towards the selection of the product mix. During the pre-1991 era, the private sector was mainly confined to the production of long products. The only producer of hot-rolled flat products was SAIL in the public sector. Now there are 5 additional major producers of flat products of steel in the private sector. There has been a clear focus on the state-of-the art technology. Presently, India can boast of new technologies like Corex, Thin Slab Casting and Compact Strip Mill Technology, DC Electric Arc Furnaces, Twin Shells AC EAFs etc. in the steel industry. The industry has now to focus on customer satisfaction and outstanding quality of steel products in a competitive environment. Steel producers in the public and private sector have taken upon themselves with determination and commitment to overcome the new and arduous challenges to come up to the Governments expectations as also the people of our country in the most difficult and trying period for the last couple of years. Indias Competitive Position India is a very competitive country with regards to steel production. India is next only to Brazil if I have to compare the competitiveness of the steel industry. The first and foremost is the availability of iron ore, the next being the adaptability to technology and last but not the least, the labour costs are very competitive as compared to the rest of the world. India is more competitive than countries like US, Europe, Posco of South Korea and Japan and even China. China does not have iron ore resources. China imports almost all of its iron ore requirements. Indias competitiveness in steel is a good one. But the competitiveness gets eroded a little due to various high infrastructure costs like freight rates in rail as well as through road are very high. Port charges are uncompetitive. The time it takes for loading and unloading of the ships is uncompetitive. For a comparison, export of steel in bulk to London works out to be more cost effective the sending steel to Mumbai from Kolkata. Impact The response of the private sector in particular has been quite encouraging in the post-liberalization era. Many all-India financial institutions also came forward to support these initiatives and had sanctioned financial assistance to 19 steel projects involving an investment of about Rs. 30,000 crore covering an additional capacity of 13 million tones per annum during the post -liberalization era. Today, India is the tenth largest steel producer in the world. Government Initiatives The Government has been making all-out efforts to help the domestic steel industry to overcome the problems faced by them. To boost the demand and consumption of steel, an Institution for Steel Development Growth (INSDAG) was set up involving leading steel producers in the country. The Development Commissioner for Iron Steel had launched a National Campaign for increasing the demand for steel in non-traditional sectors, particularly in the construction, rural and agro-based industrial sectors. Other areas include reduction in power and railway tariffs, reduction in input costs, strengthening of antidumping mechanism, setting up a steel exporters forum and an empowered committee for research and development. Current Scenario for Steel Industry Global steel demand is rising on the back of accelerated infrastructure activity in China, CIS and India, housing boom in USA, and white goods resurgence in Europe. During the recent recessionary phase, the industry has consolidated in terms of ownership as well as mothballing of inefficient capacities. Steel prices continue firming up. For the first time in last 20 years, there is demand growth all over the world for steel. In US, the demand is led by the booming housing industry. Additionally the auto industry is showing signs of recovery as auto sales hit their strongest levels for the year in July even as US posted a 2.4% GDP growth. In Europe, there is demand from a buoyant housing and white goods industry according to industry sources. In India, China and other Asian countries the demand is led by emphatic investment activities in infrastructure. Russia and other CIS nations are also witnessing strong internal demand. Iraq reconstruction work is expected to fuel further demand for steel over the next three years. China is consuming steel like never before for its infrastructure with investments such as Three Gorges project on Yangtze as well as part of its build up to the Beijing Olympics in 2008 and the Shanghai Expo in 2010. 2) PRODUCT PROFILE ESSAR STEEL LIMITED (ESL) Hot Briquetted Iron (HBI) Essar steel took various technical initiatives to increase the production and reduce the cost. The capacity utilization improved after the company made various modifications. The HBI plant produced 1,65,052 tons in March 2000. With this the annual production capacity of the plant is close to 2mn tons. Hot Rolled Coils (HRC) ESL is one of the largest exporters of hot rolled coils. It increased its exports by 32% from 161,000 tons to 213,000 tons in the last quarter The company has increased its hot rolled coil capacity from 2mn tons to 2.4mn tons. Essar steel expanded capacity to take advantage of the increasing demand in the domestic as well as the international markets. During the year Essar Steel shifted from base grade steel to high value grades to get better realizations. Essar steel has developed new products for segments like the automobile sector. ISPAT INDUSTRIES LIMITED (IIL) Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) The DRI plant operated at 90% capacity utilization and produced 1.07mt of sponge iron, with 95% metallisation quality.. The decline in realizations was due to the oversupply scenario caused by the fall in production levels of all induction and arc furnace units. Cold rolling mill and Coating plant The company produced 0.26mt of cold rolled coils/sheets in the last fiscal. During the year the company sold 1.22mt of DRI which was higher by 12% as compared to the previous years sales volume of 1.08mt. The full integration of the steel plant will enable the company to produce value-added products and help them change their product mix. INDAL IRON AND STEEL CORPORATION LIMITED (JISCO) Hot rolled products JISCOs hot rolling facilities are located at Vasind near Mumbai. The plant has an installed capacity to produce 2,80,000 tonnes of HR plates/coils. The company during the year produced 1,61,253 tons of hot rolled plates as compared to 1,97,178 in the previous year, showing a drop of 18.22% yoy. The dip was due to the low demand for HR plates as demand from heavy automobile, construction etc. sectors was low. Cold rolling and galvanizing JISCO has an installed capacity to produce 400,000tpa of cold rolled strips/sheets at Vasind (150,000tpa) and Tarapur (250,000tpa). It also has 550,000 tpa capacity of galvanised coils/ sheets at Vasind (175,000 tpa) and Tarapur (225,000 tpa) and has commissioned a 1,50,000 tpa capacity quality line CSD III. STEEL AUTHORITY OF INDIA LIMITED (SAIL) Product Mix SAIL produces nearly the entire range of steel products. The production strategy was altered in line with shifting demand patterns of the market. The production of crude steel through con-cast route increased by 17% yoy with proportion of BOF- CC production going up from 43% in FY02 to 50% in FY 2003. Modernization SAIL incurred a cost of Rs55bn between FY88 and FY92, on modernization. The second phase of modernization has envisaged Rs130bn investment during FY93 to FY97. The modernization has resulted in significant improvement in energy consumption, coke rate, yield etc Steel Products Semi-finished products (also called semis) are intermediate products, cast from liquid steel prior to further rolling into finished products. Finished steel products, available in a vast range, can be broadly categorized as longs and flats. Long products include bars, wire rods, angles, structural, channels. 3) DEMAND DETERMINATION OF THE STEEL INDUSTRY The global demand for steel is at an all time high nowadays. Much of the tremendous demand for steel around the world may be attributed to the numerous construction projects that are going on around the world. Much of these projects are taking place in the economically developing countries of the world like India, China and Thailand. China is the place where a lot of construction is being done nowadays and much of the construction is for the purpose of the Olympics to be held in 2008 and the Shanghai World Exposition of 2010. Along with being one of the major users of steel, China is one of the major producers of steel as well. During March, 2007 China produced a record 40.16 million tonnes of steel. The demand for steel has gone up in the United States of America as well.   This may be ascertained from the fact that in 2007 the amount of steel used was 2.2% more than what it was in 2006. Thus it may be ascertained that the supply and the demand for steel is at their respective peaks. This bodes well for the Indian steel industry as India has plenty of steel to meet up with both the domestic as well as international demand.  India has a lot of iron ores. This implies that India has a ready base for producing sufficient amount of steel and the experts are also of the opinion that the Indian steel industry would continue to grow in the coming years. In the recent times the production of steel has gone up in the country from 17 million tons in 1990 to 36 million tons in 2003.  The Indian steel industry is trying to reach the 66 million tones mark in 2011. The high levels of production would allow the Indian steel industry to establish a stronghold on a number of areas like housing, construction, and ground transportation. The special steel produced by the Indian steel industry is supposed to be used in high end engineering industries like generation of power, fertilizers and petrochemicals.   The fact that India is not a voracious consumer of steel like some of the major economies like China and the United States of America means that India would be able to use the surplus steel it produces for exporting to other countries. So that their demands are met. This would help the Indian steel industry to be regarded as one of the most prominent steel industries if not the leading one. 4) PLAYERS IN THE STEEL INDUSTRY The performance of steel industry in India has been quite satisfactory over the past decade. Company Share % (2009) Tata steel 35.7% Steel authority of india limited 23.8% Jsw 9.7% Other 30.7% Total 100% The steel industry in the whole of Asia is aided by cutting-edge technology and because of this, the companies in the industry has made great advancements in all their operational areas.The development of steel industry in India is mainly due to the substantial increase in the demand for steel products of India in the global market. The top companies in this industry mainly operate in four different forms like manufacturers of semi-finished steel, producers of finished steel products, manufacturers of stainless steel and producers of pig irons. The list of top companies in the steel sector in India is given below: Top 10 steel companies in India: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Limited à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Steel Authority of India à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Tata Steel à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Visveswarayya Steels à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Bokaro Steel Plant à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Bhilai Steels à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Essar Steels Limited à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Jindal Steel Power à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ KVS Ispat à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Jindal Steels Limited Some of the details regarding these top players in steel industry is given below: Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Limited: The foundation stone for Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Limited was laid in the year 1971 and this organization is the corporate body of Visakhapatnam Steel Plant. They have three different mines under their control being the blast furnace grade limestone mine, manganese mine and dolomite mine. They are specialized in the production of the following products: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Rounds à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Beams à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Wire rods à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Squares à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Billets à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Channels à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Blooms Steel Authority of India: Steel Authority of India shortly called as SAIL is one of the top public sector steel-makers in India and they produce steel products both for export and for domestic consumption as well. SAIL holds the pride of being one among the four Maharatnas in the Central Public Sector Enterprises in India. They are the major manufacturers and sellers of the following steel products: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Alloy steel à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Stainless steel à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Rods and bars à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Railway products à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Structurals à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Electrical sheets à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Galvanized steel à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Cold and hot coils and rolled sheets Tata Steel: Tata Steel is a part of the Indias popular Tata group and they are one among the global steel service and manufacturing companies in India. They have a balance presence in over 50 developed countries in the continent of Europe and they have manufacturing units in 26 different countries all over the world. Visveswarayya Steels: Visveswarayya Steels is actually a unit of the Steel Authority of India and they are dealing in the production of pig iron and alloy steels. The company began as a separate entity in the year 1923 and it has now come under the SAIL. Bokaro Steel Plant: Bokara Steel Plant began its journey as a limited company in the year 1964 and the company is situated in the Bokaro District of the state of Jharkhand. The plant holds the pride of being the countrys first Swadeshi Steel Plant. Even though, the company began its journey as a separate entity, it is now merged with the Steel Authority of India. Bhilai Steels: Bhilai Steels are one of the leading supplier, stockiest, exporter and importer of hast alloy, aluminum, inconel, monel, brass, copper, ally steel, carbon steel and stainless steel. They are also leaders in a wide range of pipefittings like compression type of popes with Ferrules, forges, screwed, SW and BW pipes. The steel products of this company are being used in different industries like cement, power, textile, pharmaceuticals, sugar mills, petrochemicals, fertilizers and chemicals. Essar Steels Limited: Essar Steels are one of the most versatile producers of steel-based products and tailor-made products and these products are the best known for their quality. Their 24-carat steel is a product that got worldwide acceptance. They have international centers in different countries like Indonesia, Vietnam, Canada and the USA. Some of the products manufactured by them are: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Cold Rolled Products à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Hot Briquetted Sponge Iron à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Hot rolled products à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Galvanized products à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Iron ore pallets Jindal Steel Power: Jindal Steel Power is a leading player in different industries like infrastructure, gas and oil, coal to liquid, mining, power and steel. They are continuously creating new opportunities by leveraging their core capabilities to venture into new business, diversifying investments and by increasing production capacity. KVS Ispat: KVS Ispat is a flagship of KVS group of companies and the company enjoys a legacy in the industry of steel for the past 22 years. This company is known for its excellence right from its inception and they are consistently making great contribution towards the development of the society. They are dealing with different types of steel products like: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Rounds Squares à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Channels à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Flats à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Angels à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Light Structural Steel à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ TMT Bars Jindal Steels Limited: Jindal Steels are also making a good contribution towards the development of India and they are ranked sixth among the top business houses with respect to their asset holding. They are one among the multi billionaire corporation in India. Their main aim is to become a world player in the industry of steel production and they are committed to maintain world-class quality in their production, to offer products at a competitive price and to do excellent after sales service to their customers. Thus, like any other industry steel industry in India is also offering wide range of employment opportunities to deserving candidates thereby acquiring the required talents for their organizations and by offering the right job to the right candidate. 5. DISTRIBUTION CHANNEL OF INDIAN STEEL INDUSTRY Distribution channel in India is now more smooth after 1991. Distribution maybe the best characterize through alarming consolidation. This consolidation is usually, predictable, also understandable as competitors in industry, which are in same business or substitute, additionally set their niches or produce bigger in a hunt for economies of scale. Distribution channel having their own alteration according to their convenience . for clearing the idea about it , the distribution channel of Indian steel industry are given as below (see  Figure 1). Traditionally, sales have playing an important role in each stage of the steel industry supply chain. sales people are remunerated through sales reward typically makes around 2 % of the product MRP . In the model shown in Figure 1, 16 % of the charge in the channel is associated to sales salaries as well as commissions. As the industry have moved from a home market to a global market, competition has greater than before they face, which help them to earn more profits. To protect profits, or for competing , the channel has upgrade their production technology . several clients begin to analyze sales calls through salespeople as an interruption in their day. A fine proportion of businesses entered in annual contracts with a companies, negotiated price as well as preset, scheduled material releases salary, or through salarwithcommission, although others draw directly . distributer channel.JPG 6. KEY ISSUES AND CURRENT TRENDS 1.New Steel Policy To Facilitate Rapid Growth Of Domestic Steel Sector, Says Government [Friday, Mar 23, 2012] A new steel policy will be aimed to ease the faster growth of the domestic steel sector by ensuring faster capacity addition, as realized by the government. The Steel Ministry-constituted panel is scheduled to finalize the draft within two months and there are expectations that it will be prepared in another three-four months. The government conceived of taking countrys capacity to 145 MT by 2015-16. The new policy assumes importance as it is coming up against the backdrop of huge delays in the multi-billion dollar ventures including those of ArcelorMittal and POSCO which were delayed due to the hurdles of regulatory and land acquisition. ArcelorMittal, which has proposed projects worth Rs 1.3 lakh cr. in Jharkhand, Orissa and Chhattisgarh, is facing land acquisition problems. POSCO, which has proposed a project in Orissa worth Rs 54,000 cr., is also battling regulatory hurdles for several years. 2.Arcelormittal Eyeing Land In Jharkhand [Saturday, Feb 04, 2012] Arcelormittal, a steel company, is in the process of identifying land in the Bokaro district for recommended 12-million tonnes per annum Greenfield steel plant in Jharkhand. AP Singh, Jharkhand Industry Secretary, said, They are still in the process of searching land in two locations Chas and Kasmar in Bokaro district. Mr Singh, who has been here to take part at a trade fair organized by CII, said that the recommended project of the international steel company will be delayed although the environment department has proposed the environmental approval, since the nod from the forest department has not come yet. The steel firm needs 2,400 acres of land for the recommended project. 3.Ministry Of Steel-(2012-2013) To transform India into a global leader in the steel sector, both as a steel producer as well as a steel consuming nation and to enhance the industrys international competitiveness. Mission Promoting policies, initiatives and incentives for attaining a national steel production capacity approximately 100 million tons per annum by the year 2012-13.Streamlining the regulatory environment for enabling optimal steel production; particularly regarding mineral policy and the mine allocation regime, tariff and taxation measures, and land allocation and environmental and forest clearances .Promoting the development of infrastructure required for enhancing national steel production through coordinated efforts, particularly in sectors like Railways, Roads, Ports, Power and Water supply . Enhancing the domestic demand for steel through promotional efforts and by enlarging the retail network of steel Companies . Improving the techno-economic efficiency of operations of steel Ministrys PSUs. Objective 1. To facilitate creation of steel making capacity and growth in steel production during 2012-13. 2. To oversee the completion of the apex and modernization programs of the PSUs. 3. Ensuring adequate availability of raw material for steel industry from domestic and overseas sources, particularly iron ore and coal by PSUs under the Ministry of Steel. 4. Improving the performance of Iron Steel industry through R&D; intervention, Quality Control and Export Promotion. 5 .To facilitate and monitor mergers, acquisitions and joint ventures by the Steel Ministrys PSUs. 6. Finalization of New Policy Initiatives. 7 To update information and data base in respect of Re-rolling industry 7. PEST Analysis India is the 10th largest steel producer of the world. the huge Integrated producers like SAIL, Tisco and RINL have traditionally dominated steel production in India. Due to excessive Government controls as well as regulations, the Indian steel industry are broadly affected from the environmental aspect. A examine of the external macro-environment in which the companies operates can be articulated in terms of the following factors which detailed as below. Political Economic Social Technological Political Factor Government And Regulatory Interventions The role of the government is crucial, both as a supplier and as a customer, and also as the supra-environment for business, creating the rules for competition. It creates boundaries within which the steel industry must operate. In the case of the Indian steel industry, the government directly or indirectly controls the finance and many of the inputs both raw material and services. The government has opened the field for private power plants. This is, in the long run, expected to improve the power situation in the country, to the benefit of the steel industry. The government as a buyer is very important for the steel industry. The investment of government in infrastructure such as highways, rail, plants, power dams, ports etc are significant key movers for steel demand. In fact, government spending on infrastructure spurs the demand for long products, which is followed, with a time lag, by a demand for flat products. The demand for long products tapers off with a saturation of infrastructure development. This is expected to provide the necessary fillip to the stagnant steel demand. Government regulations also provide protection to indigenous industry, or take it away. The recent liberalization of the economy has had mixed results for the Indian steel industry. On the one hand, they are free to import machinery6 and select raw material without the earlier procedural delays and checkpoints. On the other hand, they have had to continuously fight the dumping of cheap steel from around the world. Environmental norms imposed by the government from time to time have a significant reflact, expected to be about 15% of project cost. Government regulations and concerns regarding discharges from steel plants could become one of the major forces driving development of new technologies. Economic Factor INDIAS steel exports registered impressive growth in 2002-03. Provisional figures suggest that exports stood at highest level, against last five years. The steel industry was finally showing signs of recovery. Major producers started to export to capitalize on rising international prices and to boost bottom lines that had rusted in 1998-99. However, yet again, the good times comes for steel players. Indian economy become the strongest than it is comparing since last many years, it is absolutely good time for Indian steel industry. The analysis shows that the Indian steel industry suffer the low productivity of labour but high capital, energy and transportation cost. The steps needed to enhance competitiveness of the Indian steel industry contain investment towards technology up gradation. There is also a vast scope for quality up gradation. Quality monitoring, inspection and control measure have also to be introduced at all stages of operation as well as technical discipline. computerization in process routes, improved maintenance practices, optimum capacity utilization, extensive automation in all possible areas as well as pollution control measures need to be implemented. The Indian steel industry is at crossroad. It needs to step up values-addition to ensure that the wide fluctuations in HR prices are moderated with greater share of value-added products. Further, it has to modernize itself to bring down production costs. China makes strong impact in Indian economy. Various steel majors are planning to exports in millions of tonnes to china this year. So. Overall there is a good and grooming economy for Indian steel industry. Social Factor In Social point of view, the responsibility of various steel companies towards society and for the community is required to be analyzed. Safety Steel Industry is committed to the task of ensuring the safety and safeguarding the health of all its employees under various companies. In the company like Tata Steel, Importance will be given to continuous training for promoting safety consciousness among all employees. Joint committees of executives and employees representatives will supervise the Companys safety measures. Company is accountable for: Establishing safe and healthy work environment. Ensuring compliance with mandatory safety and health requirements. Proper maintenance and orderly house keeping, to control the risk of damage to plant and equipment. Insisting on safe work procedures being followed by employees, contractors and visitors. Quality Steel Industry shall continually tried hard to improve the quality of life of the communities industry serve with excellence in all facets of its activities. They are committed to create value for all their stakeholders by continually improving their systems and processes through innovation. The policy has reviewed to

Effect Of Annealing Time And Temperature Environmental Sciences Essay

introduced to depict the experimental semi log I-V curve informations from the thermionic emanation theory utilizing ideality equation the ideality factor N of the rectifying tube was calculated from the incline of the additive part of the semi log I-V curve. Using equation 3.22, the nothing biased barrier tallness was determined from the impregnation current that was obtained from the intercept of the excess plotted additive part with current axis at V=0. In Fig. 4.1 the logarithmic dependance of I with forward biased electromotive force is seen to widen over more than five order of magnitude leting ‘n ‘ to be easy deduced from the gradient. Any interfacial oxides layer ensuing from exposure of the semiconducting material surface to the ambiance between growing and metallization would hold the consequence of doing ideality factor a electromotive force dependent parametric quantity instead than a changeless ( Rhoderick and Williams, 1988 ) . The one-dimensionality observed in Fig. 4.1 clearly show that any bing interfacial bed must be undistinguished thickness and value for ‘n ‘ which was deduced from Fig. 4.1 being close to 1 indicated the cross barrier conveyance procedure in preponderantly via thermionic emanation. Harmonizing to Pattabi et Al. ( 2007 ) an ideality factor greater than integrity is by and large attributed to the presence of a bias dependent Schottky barrier tallness. Image forces, burrowing, g eneration-recombination, interface drosss and interfacial oxide bed are possible factors which could take to a higher ideality factor. The ideality factor represents a direct step of interface uniformity. The values for both Ns and are listed in Table 4.1 for junctions at assorted times after formation ( while at room temperature ) and in Table 4.2 for a sample which was subjected to a series of tempering interventions in vacuity at 150C0. In order to analyze the stableness of Au-CdTe contacts, the electrical features of a figure of samples were investigated as map of clip after fiction. Table 4.1 gives the information for one of these samples which was studied over a period of four hebdomads. Immediately after fiction it can be seen in Table 4.1 that the barrier height measured 0.88ev. After one hebdomad there was important decrease in the barrier height to 0.80ev as determined from I-V measurings and after two hebdomads at that place was a farther decrease in the barrier height to 0.68eV. At this phase in order to look into the stableness of the measuring system, these measurings were repeated on the following twenty-four hours and, as the Table 4.1 shows indistinguishable features were observed. This confirmed the dependability of the measuring. Subsequent measuring after three hebdomads and four hebdomads indicated a much more stable behaviour of the contact with the barrier height being mentioned in the part 0.67 – 0.68eV.As it was expected that these procedures could be speeded up by increasing the temperature, a figure of sample were studied after tempering or different lengths of clip at 150C & A ; deg ; . Typical sets of I-V consequence are presented in Table 4.2. For this sample ( 228F ) the initial barrier tallness was calculated to be 0.95eV although this is non a dependable value in the position of the initial value of the ideality factor being instead high ( at 1.02 ) . How of all time after the sample was annealed at 150C & A ; deg ; for merely ten proceedingss, there was a important betterment in the ideality factor ( to 1.1 ) and a significant decrease in the measured barrier tallness to 0.75eV. It appears from this that the consequence of a brief annealing intervention was similar to go forthing the sample for a hebdomad or two at room temperature. After the sample was annealed for a 2nd clip ( for 15 proceedingss ) there was further but smaller decrease in barrier tallne ss to 0.68eV and after a 3rd annealing period ( this clip for 20 proceedingss ) there was an even smaller decrease to 0.65eV. This tendency in behaviour due to tempering, with an initial rapid autumn in the barrier height being followed by lower alterations and greater stableness is clearly similar to that observed for sample 228A which remained at room temperature for four hebdomads. It was noted above that this behaviour must be due to chemical reaction or diffusion procedures in the part of the M/S interface. In order to supply farther information on the nature of the procedures involved, a 2nd Au contact was formed to try 228F after it had been annealed ( with its first contact in topographic point ) for a sum of 45 proceedingss are antecedently described. The features of this 2nd contact are included in Table 4.2. It is clear that the initial barrier height 0.66eV for this new contact is closer to the concluding ( station tempering ) value for the original contact instead so to the much higher initial ( brittle ) value. This suggests that the procedures which influence the barrier tallness may be due to some out-diffusion from the inside of the semiconducting material to its surface. Clearly they are non dependent on the presence of the gold bed although some interaction between the Au contact and the implicit in semiconducting material is expected to happen ( Dharmadasa et al. , 1989 ; Van Meirhaeghe et al. , 1991 ) .The consequence of farther tempering for up to 70 proceedingss is rec orded in Table 4.2. Merely little alterations in ideality factor and barrier tallness were observed, bespeaking rather stable behaviour for the new junction similar to that of the original junction after tempering. Although Au is a p-type dopant in CdTe, the informations in table 4.1 and 4.2 indicates that the alterations in interface features are non dependent on the presence of Au during the procedure of tempering. An alternate account is that there is an outward diffusion of Cd ( likewise taking to the coevals of acceptor provinces near-surface part ) .This reading of the consequences is entirely understanding with the decision reached by Dharmadasa et Al. ( 1994 ) on the consequence of chemical etch interventions. Those etchants which were found to go forth the surface rich in Cd tended to bring forth barrier highs greater than 0.9 electron volts while those go forthing the surface deficient in Cd produced barrier highs which were ~ 0.2eV lower, as found in the instance of the annealed samples studied in this undertaking. Therefore, it is clear that interface reaction lead to a significant alteration in the defect construction in the locality of the junction but farther work will be necessa ry to find the exact construction of the defects provinces which might be responsible for Fermi degree traping before and after the reaction and the associated decrease in barrier tallness. 5.2 Effect of ion plating technique In order to compare the consequence for Au contacts formed by ion-assisted manner with contacts produced by the usual vaporization process, a figure of samples were given two contacts ( one of each type ) . Fig. 4.2 gives the features for the normal Au contact and Fig. 4.3 gives the features for the ion-plated contact with 15 unsweet ion-etching clip. As expected, the I-V features in Fig. 4.2 are with ideality factor ‘n ‘ 1.2 and barrier tallness ( ) 0.90eV. As expected, the features in Fig. 4.2 are really similar to those shown in Fig. 4.1. However, for the ion-plated contact with 15 unsweet ion-etching clip there is a drastic alteration in both ideality factor ‘n ‘ and the barrier tallness ( ) was found to be 2.2 and 0.69 electron volts severally from I-V features shown in Fig. 4.3. This consequence suggests that a significant denseness of defects has been created below the Au contacts as a consequence of ion barrage of the surface during the plating procedu re. The presence of defects in the depletion part, moving as recombination centres, leads to an extra forward prejudice current constituent with an ideality factor of about 2 ( Shochley and Read, 1952 ) . However, the alteration in the behavior for the ion plated contact with 20 unsweet ion-etching clip is even more drastic than observed in Fig. 4.3. There is a greater addition in both frontward and change by reversal bias current with a really low barrier tallness of the order of 0.45 electron volt and N was determined to be 4.1 observed from features shown in Fig. 4.3. Fig. 4.4 shows the battier highs as a map of ideality factors for these ion plated Schottky rectifying tubes. As can be seen from Fig. 4.4, there is a additive relationship between the barrier tallness and ideality factor, with the barrier height going smaller as the ideality factor additions. Change in ideality factor indicates that current conveyance mechanisms other than thermionic emanation are present. As this value of N is significantly greater than 2, as would be expected for a bearer recombination mechanism, as discussed earlier, it seems likely that bearer tunneling may besides be playing a function ( Popovic, 1978 ) . These consequences indicate that the possible consequence of plasma-induced surface defects is that they contribute to the conduction of the contact by moving as fast recombination centres ( Ponon, 1985 ) and in add-on to burrowing procedure suggest that this might be a utile manner of farming low opposition ( ohmic ) junction utilizing a lower work map metal. 5.3 Effect of Doping The ideal I-V features of a Schottky rectifying tube exhibits exponential prejudice dependance as in equation 3.21 can be reduced to For V & A ; gt ; 3kT/q The magnitude of this impregnation current is governed by the effectual barrier height i.e. the difference between the conductivity set lower limit ( CBM ) at the surface of Au/n-CdTe and the Fermi degree of the metal ( Au ) . The value of the barrier tallness can be calculated from the measured impregnation current utilizing equation 3.22 Deviation from this ideal behavior can be seen on the exponentially determined I-V features for normal, low and to a great extent doped InSb substrate in Figures 4.6, 4.7 and 4.8 severally where important inclines are observed for the current under contrary prejudice. Those divergences are attributed to image force take downing ( IFL ) , recombination phenomena due to the presence of deep traps and the being of high electric field ( Martin, 1981 ) . The ideality factors ‘n ‘ and effectual barrier tallness were calculated from I-V features utilizing equation 3.23 and 3.24. The term effectual reflects the fact that the barrier tallness deduced from I-V measurings is lower than the value that should be obtained under inactive status i.e. without bearer injection, and includes the consequence of the image force take downing. Fig 4.11 shows a comparative position of I-V features for these three doped samples. After rating of I-V features, the values of the effectual barrier tallness and ideality factors for three wafers are shown in Table 4.4. A graph between barrier highs and ideality factors of three doped Au/n-CdTe Schottky rectifying tube is shown in Fig 4.9. A additive relationship between ideality factor and barrier tallness can be seen in Fig. 4.9 which is comparable to Fig.4.4. It has been demonstrated theoretically and by experimentation that the additive relationship between and ‘n ‘ can be attribute d to the sidelong inhomogeneties of the barrier tallness in Schottky rectifying tubes ( Koutsouras et al. , 2005 ) . The presence of traps besides modifies the incline of the forward current and at the same clip the value of the ideality factor, which is higher than integrity for both samples ( low and high doped sample ) . With increasing dopant concentration, the breadth of the depletion part W i.e. given by relation 3.11 i.e. at a given prejudice decreases taking to higher electric Fieldss at the interface. Low barrier or effectual barrier height instead than observed for the to a great extent doped sample ( 549E ) substrate. That is the ground for the higher swill under contrary prejudice for doped samples ( 549F, 549F ) . However, the enhanced recombination rate due to the presence of deep trap degrees besides contributes coevals and recombination consequence and can non be excluded. With heavier doping, increasing figure of new donor-type energy degrees are created underneath the conductivity set border. Under these fortunes, the givers are so near together that the giver degrees are no longer discrete and non-interacting energy degrees. These are instead debauched unifying together to make an dross bond, and doing band-gap narrowing ( BNG ) of the conductivity set. Obviously, the BNG is the highest near M/S interface, and the lowest in the majority. The effectual M/S barrier tallness is therefore reduced, as shown schematically in Fig 5.1. The crisp tip of the conductivity set border in contact with the metal is peculiarly lowered, and the new barrier tallness becomes, where is the Figure 5.1: Conventional diagram demoing the decrease of M/S barrier tallness due to band-gap narrowing. barrier tallness without BNG, and is the barrier tallness with BGN. However, a much more opposition arises from the CdTe/InSb junction. It has been shown that there is a possible barrier at this interface, associated with a conductivity set discontinuity of ~0.31 eV ( Van Welzenis and Ridley, 1984 ) . From a elaborate analysis of I-V features for gold-contacted devices with similar dimensions to those in present survey, effectual opposition value of ~100? have been deduced for the CdTe/InSb junction part ( Sands and Scott, 1995 ) . Harmonizing to the thermionic emanation theory, the contact electric resistance at the M/S contact depends merely on the effectual M/S barrier tallness, as given by ( Sze, 1982 ) ( 5.1 ) Where S is the contact country ; q, K and T are electronic charge, Boltzman invariable and temperature severally and is the Richardson invariable ( with a value of ~ 1.2 -105 Am-2T-2 for CdTe ) . is the opposition associated with the forepart metal/CdTe junction. Assuming RC & A ; lt ; 10? so ?C & A ; lt ; 0.1?cm2 and the corresponding upper bound for effectual barrier tallness is 0.38 electron volt. This is consistency with surveies of Al contacts on cleen vacuity cleaved surfaces of CdTe which yielded barrier highs of ~ 0.1 electron volt ( Patterson et al. , 1986 ) . About all the old probe emphasized tunneling as the primary mechanism for low contact electric resistance in n-CdTe. The present survey dose non govern out the importance of burrowing in making low contact electric resistance. However, it demonstrates that, depending on how much is lower than, thermionic emanation, instead than burrowing, may so be the primary cause for low contact electric resistance even in the tunnel contacts. If the surface intervention is really good, and the metal parametric quantity ( e.g. , metal thickness, metal deposition temperature, metal work map, metal combination, etc. ) are optimal, so may be significantly lower than. This, together with BGN and IFL can so play a important function for giving thermionic emanation based low contact electric resistance. 5.4 Decisions The undermentioned decisions can be reached from the surveies on the effects of tempering clip and temperature, ion plated technique and doping in scope of 2.5-1016-1-1019 cm?3 on I-V features of the Au/n-CdTe Schottky rectifying tubes. From Comparative survey of ion plated and doped samples of Au/n-CdTe Schottky rectifying tube, a additive relationship between the effectual barrier highs and ideality factors was found which shows that barrier tallness lessenings as ideality factor additions. As a consequence conduction additions. From which it can be concluded that: When n = 1 so all conveyance of negatron is from the top of the barrier and thermionic emanation current mechanism should be dominant. When 1 & A ; lt ; n & A ; lt ; 2, so burrowing current mechanism is dominant. When n = 2, so all conveyance is due to coevals and recombination current. When N & A ; gt ; 4 so there is non simple burrowing but step degree burrowing occurred. Gold contact formed to n-CdTe by vacuity vaporization output Schottky barriers with initial barrier tallness In surplus of 0.88eV. This reduced to 0.66-0.68 electron volt in a period of clip which is dependent on temperature. This decrease is found to be accompanied by a partial compensation of the sickly givers in the semiconducting material part near to the contact, a procedure which can be attributed to a discriminatory out diffusion of Cadmium from this part to the contact surface. It has been shown that the usage of simple vapour deposition on Au on n-type CdTe epilayers gave rectifying behavior with barrier tallness 0.9eV. A drastic alteration in barrier tallness was observed by the usage of ion-assisted plasma procedure, an ion etching clip of 20 sec to Au contact. This decrease in barrier tallness is attributed to the plasma- induced surface defects that contribute to the high conduction of the contact by moving as recombination centres along with multi measure degree burrowing centres. Consequence of doping in Au/n-CdTe Schottky rectifying tube shows that if n-CdTe is to a great extent doped with important conductivity set flexing near M/S interface, burrowing is possible through metal/CdTe contact. The semiconducting material part at the interface therefore becomes really thin leting an unhampered flow of negatrons via burrowing. But existent challenge to accomplishing low resistively contact by utilizing reasonably doped semiconducting materials. Many devices do so necessitate low electric resistance contacts without the load of heavy doping ( Noor Mohammad, 2004 ) Consequence of doping on I-V features of Au/n-CdTe shows that barrier breadth ( tungsten ) decreases with the increasing doping denseness in conformity with ( Eq.3.11 ) . The chief decision to be drawn from the comparative survey of I-V features of Au/n-CdTe Schottky rectifying tube, formed by the ion-plating procedure and doping consequence, leads to a much reduced contact opposition suggest that this might be a utile manner of farming stable and low opposition ( ohmic ) junction utilizing a lower work map metal ( e.g. , Al etc. ) suitable for thin movie MBE grown devices.

The Rights Of The United States - 883 Words

In 1791 were added 10 amendments to the US Constitution, also known as the Bill of Rights. The First amendment is one of the most fundamental and important rights that individuals have. This amendment describes the rights of the citizens of the United States, also the amendment guarantee citizens crucial freedoms, which are freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom of press, freedom of assembly and freedom of petition. The First Amendment is very powerful and has the ability to protect us but sometime even harm us (for example some of the lawsuits against First Amendment). American citizens have certain rights to be proud that they are Americans. One of this rights is the freedom of speech. The freedom of speech is not only spoken words it s much more than this. Freedom of speech allowing people to say whatever they want and whenever they want, people can openly express their opinion and beliefs Freedom of the Press means that any journalist has the right to express opinions without censorship of the government. The Virginia Declaration of Rights was a originator to this amendment, stating that â€Å"the freedom of the press is one of the greatest bulwarks of liberty and can never be restrained but by despotic governments.† (Bill of Rights Institute) In 1798 were passed the Alien and Sedition Acts and signed by President Adams. Alien and Sedition Acts consisted of four laws passed by the Federalist. These acts increased theShow MoreRelatedThe Rights Of The United States851 Words   |  4 Pagesfounding fathers established the United States of America constitution, made up of twenty-seven amendments, at the constitutional convention. Fourteen years later, two-thirds majority of the state ratification, necessary to make it legal, ratified the Bill of Rights. As part of the constitution, we have individual rights. These rights include life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. With this, people from all around the world who come into the U.S, have the same rights as the citizens of the U.S.Read MoreThe Rights Of The United States1690 Words   |  7 Pagesmost important rights of American people. Liberty is understood as a basic right of freedom to which everyone can engage in certain actions without control or interference by a government or other power. Based on that principle, selective incorporation is a process of constitutional law in which some provisions of the Bill of Rights are nationalized to the states through the nationalization of Fourteenth Amendment, so citizens of the U.S. are ascertained to have protection from states as well as centralRead MoreThe Rights Of The United States1356 Words   |  6 PagesHuman rights are inherent to being human and essentially a right obtained by any being born in the world. These rights do not discriminate whether one was born in the United States or in Mexico. Essentially, they are what it means to be a human being, not if you are a citizen to a specific country. Law ful permanent residents of the United States prior to 1996 were eligible for public benefits programs suck as the Food Stamp Program, Medicaid, Supplemental Security Income (SSI), and Temporary AssistanceRead MoreThe Rights Of The United States1343 Words   |  6 Pagesbeing necessary to the security of a Free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed†. This statement is part of the Second Amendment in the United States that shows American citizens have an authority to own a gun legally to protect themselves. Since the United States was founded in 1776, this nation has grown up connected to firearms. After wars such as World War I and World War II, war industries led the United States to become one of the powerful nations in theRead MoreThe Rights Of The United States1684 Words   |  7 Pages1). Indeed, throughout the course of history of United States, peoples’ liberty has been established as the most important aspect of American p eople. Liberty is understood as a basic right of freedom in which everyone can engage without control or interference by a government or other power. Based on that principle, Selective Incorporation is a process of constitutional law in which some provisions of the Bill of Rights are nationalized to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment, so citizens ofRead MoreThe Rights Of The United States1219 Words   |  5 PagesIt is well known that the United States have been seen internationally as a key actor, for better or worse, when it comes to the field of universal human rights. At the same time, recent events have shown a disassociation between the words and actions of the nation. Despite the fact that these rights are supposed to be constitutionally-protected, the United States has been criticized for repeatedly violating them not only in the past but in recent memory: criminalization of poverty and homelessnessRead MoreThe Rights Of The United States867 Words   |  4 PagesA lot of bills have been passed and written as legislation under the falsification that they would better outline the citizens freedom and guarantee their rights. Yet once in a while these laws are made with dismissal to what is expressed in our Constitution. At times they twist and distort the main purpose of the amendment, counter acting the purpose of why the Amendments was written. They were to guarantee that there would not be a rehash of what the founding fathers had encountered when theyRead MoreThe Rights Of The United States924 Words   |  4 Pagestruly making the United States â€Å"the land of the free and home of the brave†. This was for everyone including minorities. At the time of making the laws of America, the founding fathers never knew that the overwhelming issues of slavery and unequal rights would have overtaken the United States of America, even so much that it still exists today. Even leaders who also had hopes of seeing equality in America like Rosa P arks, Martin Luther King Jr., and the Advocates for Women’s Rights to vote risked theirRead MoreThe Rights Of The United States1203 Words   |  5 Pagesbelieve that everyone deserves and are entitled to the same rights as anyone else. But are there exceptions to the rights of citizens? Are there times when it is acceptable for citizens to be denied rights? Throughout history most nations have had some sort laws in place regarding the defense of the nation. The United States being no different, has undergone several changes throughout the course of our country’s history in regards to the rights of citizens that serve. For example in 1948 President TrumanRead MoreThe Rights Of The United States1199 Words   |  5 PagesThe Right to What? All day all night this document printed on hemp and written with a quill, the defender of American Ideology and rights, the constitution. But to get the jest of the constitution you have to have an understanding of the Bill of Rights the first ten right written into the framework of every American person. The United States Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights is essentially the points of the Declaration of Independence our founding fathers wanted to stress as the most important.

Essay Ethical Issuses of Tobacco Companies in The Insider

The movie The Insider literally provides a seeing glass perspective into the summation of ethical issues in businesses that directly affects the consumers physical and psychological health and the alleged methods that the tobacco company would resort to in order to safe guard itself from litigation and from disclosing information that will adversely affect the sale of its sole money making product yet is ultimately crucial to its customers understanding of the contents of the product that they are purchasing and its implications on their personal health. There are several ethical philosophies in play here regarding the tobacco company and these ethical issues can be explored by analyzing the myriad of interplay of relationships†¦show more content†¦Of course one could quote ethical egoism here and argue that whatever the business of a company is, it is not responsible for its consumers and is right in selling its products for profits and every individual has the right to pr otect their interests which in this case would be their individual freedom to smoke cigarettes and evaluate by themselves how harmful smoking is to them. But this principal is based on an assumption that both entities; business and consumers are isolated from each other and information about cigarettes are available to all without discrimination. And this is of course is a very false assumption as we see in the movie of the continuous denial of the tobacco company in a lawsuit and under oath of the harmful effects and addictiveness of cigarettes due to nicotine and other carcinogenic substances in it. The obvious trick used by the seven executives of the tobacco company or â€Å"seven dwarves† in a lawsuit against them is the misuse of one of the arguments for lying to protect trade secrets in business by denying that they know that the substances in its product such as nicotine and coumarin is addictive and harmful to the user or smoker. Thus in conclusion the business itsel f is based on a premise of knowingly selling products that are absolutely injurious to the health of the consumer yet defending its interests by invoking their rights as a business to protect itself from disclosing information that will be used by other